One of the most important tools for making paper speak in your own voice is punctuation.
-Russell Baker
When speaking aloud, you punctuate constantly--with body language. Your listener hears commas, dashes, question marks, exclamation points, quotation marks as you shout, whisper, pause, wave your arms, roll your eyes, wrinkle your brow. In writing, punctuation plays the role of body language. It helps readers hear you the way you want to be heard.
Don't let the rules scare you. Think of them as guidelines. For example, comma. Commas are part of a system; knowing that system is more helpful in making decisions than memorizing a list of rules about commas.
There are two basic systems of punctuation:
- The loose or open system, which tries to capture the way body language punctuates talk.
- The tight, closed structural system, which hews closely to the sentences's grammatical structure
The Four Functions of Punctuation
- End punctuation.
- Internal punctuation.
- Direct-quotation punctuation.
- Word punctuation.
Periods, question marks, and exclamation points signal the end of a sentence. Use a period after pain statements or commands; use a question mark after questions; use an exclamation point after strongly emotional expressions.
The Period [ . ]
Use a period to signal the end of a statement, a mild command, or an indirect question.
STATEMENT She swam the mile with easy strokes.
COMMAND Swim with easy strokes.
INDIRECT I asked her where she learned to swim with such easy strokes.
QUESTION
Use a period after an abbreviation.
Dr. Mr. Mrs. Ms. R.N. C.P.A. Sen. B.A.
Omit the period after abbreviations that serve as names of organizations or government agencies (NABISCO, PTA, NFL, UNICEF, CIA, DOD). If you are in doubt about whether to use periods in an abbreviation, consult a good dictionary for the standard practice.
The Question Mark [ ? ]
Use a question mark after a direct question.
Direct questions often begin with an interrogative pronoun or adverb (who, when, what, etc.) and usually have an inverted word order, with verb before the subject.
When did you study chemistry?
Do you ever wonder what your future will be?
You want to make a good impression, don't you?
Use a question mark inside parentheses (?) to indicate doubt or uncertainty about the correctness of a statement.
The device shows that, even after research, you could not establish the accuracy of a fact. It does not serve as a substitute for checking facts.
John Pomfret, an English poet, was born in 1667 (?) and died in 1702.
Do not use a question mark after an indirect question.
An indirect question is a statement implying a question but not actually asking one. Though the idea expressed is interrogative, the actual phrasing is not.
They asked me whether I had studied chemistry in high school.
He asked me whether I wished to make a good impression.
I wonder what my future will be.
The Exclamation Point [ ! ]
Use the exclamation point after an interjection or after a statement that is genuinely emphatic or exclamatory.
Fire! Help!
What a horrible accident!
The rocket's engines have ignited, and we have liftoff!
Do not overuse the exclamation point.
Used sparingly, the exclamation point gives real emphasis to individual statements. Overused, it either deadens the emphasis or introduces an almost hysterical tone in your writing.
War is hell! Think of what it does to young people to have their futures interrupted and sometimes cut off completely! Think of what it does to their families! Think of what it does to the nation!
INTERNAL PUNCTUATION
End punctuation indicates whether a whole sentence should be read as a question, a statement, or an expression of emotion. Internal punctuation indicates relationships and relative importance of elements within the sentence. Five punctuation marks are used for this purpose: commas, semicolons, colons, dashes, and parentheses.
THE COMMA [ , ]
This is the most widely used mark of all. It's also the toughest and most controversial. If you can handle it without sweating, the others will be easy.
Use a comma to separate a long introductory phrases or clauses from main clause.
INTRODUCTORY PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES
After stealing the crown jewels from the Tower of London, I went home for tea.
According to legend, Hercules had enormous strength.
After his long exile to France, Charles II returned to England in 1660.
INTRODUCTORY VERBAL PHRASES
To succeed as a long-distance runner, a person must have strong legs.
Announcing a recess, the judge retired to his chambers.
Exhausted by her effort, the swimmer fell back into the pool.
INTRODUCTORY CLAUSES
As soon as she had finished studying, she left the library.
If your job is to write every day, you learn to do it like every other job.
The comma is frequently omitted after very short introductory clauses or phrases. However, even when the introductory clause or phrase is very short, a comma is necessary if its omission can cause misreading.
CLEAR When he arrived she was taking the cat out of the piano.
After his defeat he retired from public life.
CONFUSING When he returned home was not what it used to be.
CLEAR When he returned, home was not what it used to be.
CONFUSING After dark fireflies came in large numbers.
CLEAR After dark, fireflies came in large numbers.
Use commas to set off nonrestrictive elements. Do not set off restrictive elements.
A restrictive element--which may be a clause, a phrase, or a word--is an essential modifier. It defines, limits, or identifies the meaning of whatever it modifies. A nonrestrictive element may be interesting, but it is incidental to the basic meaning of the sentence.
1. Set off nonrestrictive clauses and phrases with commas. Do not set off restrictive clauses and phrases.
NONRESTRICTIVE CLAUSE
Wide porches, which sometimes run along three sides of the house, are called verandas.
RESTRICTIVE CLAUSE
Houses that were built in warm climates often featured verandas.
NONRESTRICTIVE CLAUSE
Charleston, South Carolina, where my grandmother lived, has many old homes with lovely verandas.
RESTRICTIVE CLAUSE
The town where I grew up had few porches and no verandas.
2. Set off nonrestrictive appositives with commas. Do not set off restrictive appositives.
NONRESTRICTIVE APPOSITIVES
Davy Crockett, the most famous man at the Alamo, was a former Indian fighter.
No treatment, not even hypnosis or acupuncture, helped them stop smoking.
RESTRICTIVE APPOSITIVES
Robert Frost's "Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening" is one of his best-known poems.
The slang term shrink is often applied to psychiatrists.
Use a comma to set off adverbial phrases and clauses following the main clause and explaining, amplifying, or offering a contrast to it. Do not set off such clauses if they are closely related to the main clause.
Adverbial phrases and clauses usually restrict the meaning of the main clauses to which they are joined. They are therefore essential to the meaning of the main clause and are not set off by a comma when they follow the main clause. When they merely introduce additional nonrestrictive information, however, a comma is used to indicate that they are not essential to the meaning.
He has visited all the small towns in Pennsylvania.
He has visited all the small towns, in Pennsylvania, in Ohio, in almost every state of the union.
In the first of these examples, in Pennsylvania restrict the location of the small towns and is an adjectival modifier of towns. In the second, however, the in phrase is additional information amplifying the assertion of the main clause but not essential to it.
Use commas to set off all absolute phrases.
Absolute phrases consist of a noun or a pronoun followed by a present or past participle. They modify the entire main clause in which they stand rather than any particular word or words in that clause.
He was stretched out on his reclining chair in the full sun, his eyes covered, his head thrown back, his arms spread wide.
Other things being equal, short familiar words are better than long unfamiliar words.
Use commas to set off elements that slightly interrupt the structure of a sentence.
Words, phrases, and clauses that slightly interrupt the structure of a sentence are often called parenthetical elements. Such elements include words of direct address, mild interjections, the words yes and no, transitional words and expressions, and phrases expressing contrast.
DIRECT ADDRESS
Can you show me, Bella, how to punctuate this sentence?
Will you speak a little louder, Nelson?
MILD INTERJECTIONS
Well, no one can do more than his best.
Oh, I never get A's--only C's and more C's.
TRANSITIONAL WORDS AND PHRASES
Sales taxes, moreover, hurt poor people severely.
Quakers, on the other hand, are opposed to military service.
The judge rules, nevertheless, that damages must be paid.
The result, in short, was a complete breakdown of discipline.
CONTRASTED ELEMENTS
He had intended to write 1868, not 1968.
Tractors, unlike horses, require gasoline.
Insecticides and garden sprays now available are effective, yet safe.
Use commas to separate the items in a series.
A series consists of three or more words, phrases, or clauses of equal grammatical rank. The items of such a series are said to be coordinate: they have approximately equal importance. Typical series take the form a, b, and c, or the form a, b, or c.
She talked fluently, wittily, and penetratingly. [Three adverb]
The triathlon is an athletic event involving swimming, running, and cycling. [Three nouns]
Only a generation ago, the Navaho were horsemen, nomads, keepers of flocks, painters in sand, weavers of wool, artists in silver, and singers of the yei-bie-chai. [Seven nouns, some modified by prepositional phrases]
Use a comma to separate main clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction.
The coordinating conjunctions are and, but, or, nor, for, so, and yet.
Half a million colonists remained loyal to the British Crown during the American Revolution, and for their loyalty many of them lost their homes, property, and livelihood.
History books used to portray Loyalists as conniving aristocrats with British connections, but research has revealed that most were ordinary hard-working farmers and tradespeople.
Rebel patriots physically abused some Loyalists, or more often they verbally abused those who would not shift their allegiance.
Loyalists were conservatives who did not want change, nor did they want separation of the colonies from England.
About 36,000 Loyalists eventually emigrated to Nova Scotia in Canada, for this territory was ruled by the British Crown.
Approximately, 500,000 of the 2.5 million people in colonial America were Loyalists, so one in every five Americans could be classified as Loyalists.
Nearly, 100,000 Loyalist Americans fled the colonies in what was the largest exodus in American history, yet their suffering has largely been unrecognized.
Follow established conventions for the use of commas in dates, addresses, geographical names, titles, and long numbers.
Dates. If a date is written as month-date-year, use a comma between the date and the year. If such a date stands within a sentence, use a comma after the year.
The Germany surrender ended World War II in Europe on May 7, 1945.
World War II began on September1, 1939, when Germany invaded Poland.
If only the month and year are given, use a comma neither between them nor after the year.
The war in the Pacific ended in August 1945.
The war in the Pacific ended in August 1945 after Japan surrendered.
If a date is written as day-month-year, use no commas.
17 July 1932 6 August 1984
Addresses. Standard comma punctuation of addresses is as follows:
206 Hayes Street, San Francisco, California 94102
39 West 46th Street, Olean, New York 71402
If geographical name or addresses appear within a sentence, use a comma after the final item. Note that no comma is used before the zip code.
ADDRESSES
She gave 39 West 46th Street, Olean, New York 71402 as her forwarding address.
GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES
He spent a month at Bremen, Germany, and the rest of his time in Tunbridge Wells, Kent, a small village in England.
Titles. Use commas to separate names from titles when the title follows the name. If the name followed by a title occurs within a sentence, use a comma after the title as well as between the name and the title.
Katherine Dugald, M.D. William Harrington, Sr.
The university recently announced the appointment of Katherine Dugald, M.D., to the faculty of medical school.
Large numbers. Use commas in large numbers to indicate thousands.
1,248
89,126
1,722,844
In Indonesia we use periods in large numbers to indicate thousands.
1.244
88.123
1.844.522
THE SEMICOLON [ ; ]
Use a semicolon to separate closely related main clauses not joined by a coordinating conjunction.
A more sophisticated mark than the comma, the semicolon separates two main clauses, but it keeps those two thoughts more tightly linked than a period can.
I steal crown jewels; she steals hearts.
The main clauses of compound sentences are most commonly joined by a comma and one of the coordinating conjunctions: and, but, or, nor, for, so, and yet. When main clauses expressing closely related ideas are not joined by a comma and a coordinating conjunction, use a semicolon between them.
Initiative in the attack is not much in the nature of the tarantula; most species fight only when cornered so that escape is impossible.
Use a semicolon to separate main clauses joined by a conjunctive adverb.
Conjunctive adverbs are words like however, moreover, therefore, consequently, indeed, and then that carry a thought from one main clause to the next.
I ordered the concert tickets by mail; therefore, I didn't have to stand in line.
Our muscles were tired and sore; nevertheless, we kept on jogging.
You can recognize conjunctive adverbs and distinguish them from other kinds of connecting words if you remember that they are the only ones that can be moved from the beginning of a clause to another position in that clause without changing the clause's meaning.
The band struck up a familiar tune; indeed, they were playing our song.
The band struck up a familiar tune; they were, indeed, playing our song.
Use a semicolon to separate main clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction if the clauses are long or internally punctuated.
The meeting last night, the most argumentative and confusing thus far, lasted until midnight; and unless something unexpected happens in the meantime, the next meeting may last even longer.
Use a semicolon to separate the items of a series if the items themselves contain commas.
Jean Smith, the cardiologist; Angelo Martinez, the dentist; and Alan Wilson, the psychiatrist, meet for lunch every Tuesday.
THE COLON [ : ]
Whereas the semicolon always indicates a full stop, the colon indicates an additional or expectation. It indicates that what follows will explain, clarify, illustrate, specify detail. A colon is a tip-off to get ready for what's next: a list, a long quotation or an explanation.
Use a colon to separate two main clauses when the second explains, illustrates, or amplifies the first.
It is safe to predict what prices will do in the next decade: they will go up.
If you're considering a hat, remember this cardinal rule: never try to wear a hat that has more character than you do.
Use a colon to set off a list or series, including a list or series introduced by the following or as follows.
For the most part we are an intemperate people: we eat too much when we can, drink too much, indulge our senses too much.
If you are interested in reading further about usage, we recommended the following books: Evans, A Dictionary of Contemporary American Usage; Follet, Modern American Usage; and Bernstein, The Careful Writer.
The recommended treatment for a cold is as follows: plenty of fluids, bed rest, and aspirin for fever.
Use a colon to introduce a formal quotation.
In her book Stress and the American Woman, Nora Scott Kinzer writes: "Female alcoholism is on the rise. Psychotropic drugs such as Valium and Equanil are widely used by housewives. Harried male and female executives gulp uppers and downers by the handful. Obesity prevents women from obtaining or keeping good jobs--and can destroy lives as effectively as the bottle of liquor or pills. Stress kills via an intermediary."
Use a colon according to established conventions to separate items in biblical citations, subtitles and titles, and divisions of time.
BIBLICAL
CITATION Luke 3: 1-4
DIVISIONS OF
TIME 9:20 a.m.
SUBTITLES 2001: A Space Odyssey
The Panda's Thumb: More Reflections in Natural History
THE DASH AND PARENTHESES -- ( )
The dash SHOUTS. Parentheses whisper. Shout too often, people stop listening; whisper too much, people become suspicious of you.
Both dashes and parentheses are used to set off interrupting comments, explanations, examples, and other similar parenthetical elements from the main thought of the sentence.
A single dash is used following an introductory element or preceding a final sentence element. A pair of dashes is used to enclose an element within a sentence. Parentheses are always used in pairs around the enclosed element. In handwriting, distinguish the dash from the hyphen by making the dash longer. In typewritten copy, use two hyphen without spacing to indicate the dash.
The dash [ -- ]
The dash creates a dramatic pause to prepare for an expression needing strong emphasis
Use the dash or a pair of dashes to mark an abrupt shift in sentence structure or thought.
I'll marry you--if you'll rob Topkapi with me.
That puppy is going to grow up to be enormous--check out the size of his paws--and will eat us out of house and home.
Use the dash to set off nonrestrictive appositives and other parenthetical element for emphasis.
In any fight against the sun--for all his technology--will come out the loser.
The spoken language does not have the same standards as the written language--the tune you whistle is not the orchestra's score.
Use the dash for clarity to set off internally punctuated appositives or other parenthetical elements.
Putting a spin on an object--a top, a bullet, a satellite--gives it balance and stability.
Use the dash to set off introductory lists or summary statements.
Gather data, tabulate, annotate, classify--the process seemed endless to the research assistant.
Use the dash to show interruption or hesitation in speech.
"Why don't you--" He stopped abruptly and looked away.
Parentheses ( )
Parentheses help you pause quietly to drop in some chatty information not vital to your story.
Use parentheses to set off parenthetical information, explanation, or comment that is incidental or unimportant to the main thought of the sentence.
Despite Betty's daring spirit ("I love robbing your piggy bank," she often said), she was a terrible dancer.
More than 1,000 years ago, the Hopis (the word means "the peaceful ones") settled in the mesa-dotted farmland of northern Arizona.
Use parentheses to enclose numerals or letters labeling items listed within sentences.
To check out a book from our library, proceed as follows: (1) check the catalog number carefully; (2) enter the catalog number in the upper left-hand corner of the call slip; (3) fill out the remainder of the call slip information; and (4) hand in the call slip at the main desk.
QUOTATION MARKS " "
Indicating quoted material
These tell the reader you're reciting the exact words someone said or wrote.
Use double quotation marks to enclose a direct quotation from speech or writing.
She warned me, "Don't dive from that rock." Or: "Don't dive from that rock," she warned me.
It was Emerson who wrote, "A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds."
Betty said, "I can't tango." Or: "I can't tango," Betty said.
Notice the comma comes before the quote marks in the first example, but comes inside them in the second.
Apostrophe [ ' ]
The big headache is with possessive nouns. If the noun is singular, add 's:
I hated Betty's tango.
If the noun is plural, simply add an apostrophe after the s:
Those are the girls' coats.
The same applies for singular nouns ending in s, like Dickens:
This is Dickens's best book.
And in plural:
This is the Dickenses' cottage.
If you write it's, you are saying it is.
Use single quotation marks to enclose a quotation within a quotation.
E.B. White wrote, "As an elderly practitioner once remarked, 'Writing is an act of faith, not a trick of grammar.'"
Notice that the end punctuation of the sentence within single quotation marks serves also as the end punctuation for the entire sentence unit of which it is a part.
Set off prose quotations of more than four lines and poetry quotations of more than three lines by spacing and indentation.
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